📘 Chapter 2B: Principles of Training

Everything you need to know – definitions, explanations, analogies & memory tricks

1. The SPORT Principles

🧠 Memory Trick S-P-O-R-T = Specificity · Progression · Overload · Reversibility · Tedium
Think: "You train SPORT to get better at sport!"

Specificity Training should be relevant and appropriate to the sport in which the athlete is competing, in order to prepare the athlete for the demands of that sport. Training should progress from general conditioning to specific training for a particular skill.

💡 Analogy If you want to be a better swimmer, you train in water — not on a bicycle! A rugby player does squats because they mimic the strength needed for tackling, running and jumping in rugby specifically.

Progressive Overload If an athlete trains slightly harder each session (by overloading the body a little more each time), the body will adapt to the new demands and fitness will improve. It is important NOT to overload too much too quickly as this can lead to injuries.

💡 Analogy Think of it like levelling up in a video game — each time you beat a level, the next one is slightly harder. If you skip 10 levels at once, you'll lose immediately (get injured!).

📊 Example – Progressive Overload in Squats Week 1: 3×12 reps → Week 2: 3×13 reps → Week 3: 3×14 reps
Small increases each week = body adapts safely.

Overload (FITT) Overload means pushing the body beyond its current comfort zone so it is forced to adapt. The FITT formula is used to apply overload by adjusting Frequency, Intensity, Time or Type. Only ONE aspect of FITT should be changed at a time.

Reversibility Systems reverse or de-adapt if training stops, is significantly reduced, or if injury prevents training. It is essential to avoid prolonged breaks and to maintain the athlete's motivation. Cardiovascular endurance reverses more quickly than muscular strength and endurance.

💡 Analogy Think of your fitness like a sandcastle — it takes effort to build, but the tide (inactivity) can wash it away. Cardio is like a small sandcastle, it goes first; muscle strength is the bigger one — it lasts a bit longer!

Tedium Training must be structured to provide sufficient variety for the athlete to avoid tedium (boredom). Planning carefully to avoid sessions becoming overly repetitive will help maintain motivation. However, too much variation could result in an athlete failing to meet fitness goals. Specificity should not be sacrificed to avoid tedium.

🧠 Memory Trick "Tedium = Tedious = Boring!" Variety keeps athletes interested and motivated, but don't go so wild that you lose the specific training goal.

2. The FITT Principle

FITT Principle A guideline that can be applied when developing training programs to incrementally improve performance. Each category should be considered when altering any activity or programme. Only ONE aspect should be altered at a time when applying progressive overload.

F – Frequency

How often you train each week.
E.g. 3 sessions/week → 4 sessions/week

I – Intensity

How hard you work during training.
E.g. Increase the weight lifted

T – Time

How long each session lasts.
E.g. 30 min → 45 min per session

T – Type

What type of exercise you do.
E.g. Swap running for cycling

When applying FITT to progressive overload, only change ONE variable at a time. The examiner loves asking you to explain HOW you would apply FITT to a specific sport.

3. Other Training Considerations

Individual Difference All athletes are different. Training must be related to the athlete's age, gender, injury status and fitness level. Any training that fails to be relevant to the individual will fail to motivate the athlete and will prove unsuccessful in the long term.

Diminishing Returns Individuals with low initial fitness levels will show greater relative gains at a faster rate than those with higher initial fitness. Initial gains will taper off or plateau as training progresses. The closer a fitness component gets to its physiological limit, the more training that must be undertaken to provide ever-decreasing improvements in performance.

💡 Analogy If you've never run before and start training, you'll improve massively in the first few weeks. But an Olympic marathon runner training for another second off their time has to work much, much harder for tiny improvements. It's like filling a bucket — the last drop to top it off takes the same effort as the first!

Rest Rest days are a crucial part of any training plan, in order to allow the body to recover and for gains to be made. A ratio of 3 days training to 1 day of rest is generally considered appropriate. Without sufficient rest, the athlete risks overtraining.

Overtraining This occurs when an athlete's body does not have sufficient time (through rest) to adapt to the training demands, and as a result their fitness actually declines. When an athlete overtrains they are at greater risk of injury or illness. Good sleep patterns and appropriate diet and nutrition are also crucial to allow the athlete to recover appropriately.

⚠️ Watch Out! Overtraining doesn't just mean tired — it means fitness GOES DOWN. The body needs rest to adapt and improve. More training is NOT always better!

4. Methods of Physical Fitness Training

🔄 Circuit Training ▶

Circuit Training A method of training involving a series of exercises called stations, completed one after another with a short rest between each. A circuit usually involves 6–10 exercises that work different muscle groups. Circuits usually avoid working the same muscle group at two consecutive stations.

Examples: sit-ups, press-ups, squats, lunges, step-ups, dribbling, shooting, passing.

💡 Analogy Like a carousel — you keep moving from one ride to the next. By the time you come back around, that muscle group has had a rest!

🏃 Continuous Training ▶

Continuous Training Involves working for a sustained period of time without rest while maintaining a steady pace, working in the aerobic zone (between 40% and 85% of HR max) for periods longer than 20 minutes in duration. Generally used to develop cardiovascular endurance or aerobic power.

Common examples: cycling, swimming, running, rowing.

🧠 Memory Trick "Continuous = non-stop, steady pace." The keyword is aerobic zone (40–85% HR max) and over 20 minutes.

⚡ Fartlek Training ▶

Fartlek Training Involves varying the intensity or speed of activity to improve fitness and endurance. Fartlek is a Swedish word meaning "speed play." Aerobic and anaerobic work can be done in the quantities that suit the performer. Suitable for sports that involve constantly changing levels of intensity such as basketball, rugby, soccer and hurling.

💡 Analogy Imagine a dog on a walk — it jogs, then sprints after a squirrel, then walks, then trots. That's Fartlek! It mirrors real sport where pace constantly changes.

⏱️ Interval Training ▶

Interval Training Involves an athlete alternating between periods of high intensity work and periods of rest. Often used to improve cardiovascular endurance, specifically anaerobic power.

🔥 HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training) ▶

HIIT – High Intensity Interval Training Involves alternating between short periods of intense work and periods of active recovery or rest. Used to train for improvements in cardiovascular endurance and anaerobic power.

Active Recovery Involves performing low intensity exercise following strenuous work, which promotes blood flow to the muscles helping them to recover quicker.

💡 Analogy HIIT vs Interval: Both alternate work and rest — but HIIT is very high intensity with very short recovery. Think sprint 20 secs, rest 10 secs. Interval is longer work periods with more rest.

🤸 Stretching ▶

Static Stretching Focuses on improving the flexibility component of fitness. Involves holding a muscle in a stretch for a defined period of time (10–30 seconds), repeated for a defined number of reps.

Dynamic Stretching Involves active movements where joints are taken through the full range of motion. Stretches mimic the types of movements that athletes are likely to experience in the sport they are about to perform in. Used in warm-ups.

🧠 Memory Trick Static = Still (hold the stretch) | Dynamic = Dance (moving stretches matching the sport)

🏋️ Weight Training ▶

Weight Training Involves the use of weights or resistance to cause adaptations in the muscles.

Term	Definition
Reps (Repetitions)	The number of times an athlete repeats an exercise in question.
Sets	The number of cycles of reps that an athlete completes.
Rep Max (RM)	The maximum weight an athlete can lift — e.g. 1 Rep Max (1RM) = max weight for one rep.

Free Weights Includes dumbbells, barbells, kettle bells and Olympic bars, all of which have to be fully controlled by the athlete. As the athlete fully controls the weight, their muscles must also stabilise it. This has benefit across a broad range of sports and is the preferred training method for most high-level athletes.

Machine Weights Machines control the angle and direction of the weight being lifted. The machine takes much of the control away, so athletes do not work as hard on stabilising. Often used to introduce novices to weight training and elite athletes in early stages of rehab from injuries.

Body Weights Using the body as its own resistance when performing training exercises. Popular as it requires very little or no equipment. Develops local muscular endurance, core balance and stability skills.

Unilateral Exercises Single leg or single arm exercises. Examples: bicep curls, tricep extensions, single leg squat, single leg hamstring curls.

Bilateral Exercises Movements carried out with both arms or both legs at the same time. Examples: bench press, dead lift, squat, shoulder press.

🧠 Memory Trick Unilateral = one limb (like a unicycle — one wheel!)
Bilateral = two limbs (like a bicycle — two wheels!)

🎯 Training Beyond the Activity ▶

Training Beyond the Activity Training which is not specific to the sport itself. E.g. tempo running without a ball in rugby. Coaches may use this when the activity is difficult to replicate in sport-like scenarios or when facilities, space or equipment are unavailable. Sometimes used to help prevent tedium.

5. Strategies to Support Recovery & Adaptation

It is essential that coaches and athletes employ a range of strategies to support recovery from training and to ensure maximal adaptation can occur.

😴 Sleep

Most athletes need 8–10 hours of sleep to allow adequate rest, recovery and ideal physiological environment for adaptation.

💤 Napping

20–30 minute naps help improve recovery rates and mental focus after a training session.

🧘 Relaxation Techniques

Managing stress (e.g. mindfulness) can aid recovery and adaptation by improving sleep and nutrition quality.

Cold Water Immersion (Ice Baths) A common recovery method after training, matches or races. Cold water causes blood vessels to contract, draining blood and removing lactic acid that built up during activity. When the athlete leaves, blood vessels expand, filling with fresh oxygenated blood. This reduces soreness and recovery time. Typically 5–10 minutes in duration.

💡 Analogy Think of it like squeezing a sponge — cold water squeezes out the dirty water (lactic acid), then when you let go (warm up), fresh clean water rushes back in!

Compression Garments Improve blood circulation, which can aid in recovery by helping to remove lactic acid from the blood and reducing both inflammation and symptoms associated with DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness).

Contrast Bathing Alternating between cold water immersion and warm water immersion. This cycle is often repeated a number of times. The purpose is to flush lactic acid and other waste products from the muscles and reduce muscle soreness and inflammation.

Active Recovery Light aerobic exercise that increases blood flow, heats up the muscles and stimulates hormones that aid in recovery, flushing waste material out of muscles following activity. Examples: exercise bike, swimming, yoga.

Tapering A technique used prior to an event or competition. Involves careful planning of the reduction in training volume and intensity in the days immediately prior to competition. Allows an athlete to alleviate fatigue and maximise recovery so they can perform at their peak. Most common in endurance sports.

💡 Analogy Tapering is like sharpening a knife before cutting — you stop grinding it (reducing intense training) and let it fine-tune, so it's at its sharpest on competition day.

DOMS – Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness Muscle soreness and stiffness that typically appears 24–48 hours after exercise. It is caused by microscopic tears in the muscle fibres during intense or unfamiliar exercise.

6. Periodisation

Periodisation The division of a training plan (usually yearly) into training phases which apply the principles of training. It involves dividing the training year into specific sections (called cycles) for a set purpose.

🧠 Memory Trick Macro = Big picture (whole year) → Meso = Medium (weeks-month block) → Micro = Mini (week-by-week)
Think: MAC address is your whole computer → Meso is a program → Micro is one day's code!

Cycle	Definition	Example
Macrocycle (Big)	The full training cycle. Involves a long-term performance goal, usually spread over the course of a year. Could span an entire season or a four-year Olympic build-up.	Full GAA football season: preseason → in-season → transition
Mesocycle (Medium)	A number of continuous weeks where the training programme emphasises the same type of physical adaptations. Takes each part of the macrocycle and looks at it with a particular training focus in mind.	A 12-week general preparation period for a hurdler focusing on speed endurance and basic technique
Microcycle (Small)	A small number of training sessions with a daily breakdown of the training the performer will do every day. Generally a microcycle will repeat over the course of the mesocycle.	One week of training within the preseason mesocycle

You may be asked to design a training programme using periodisation. Know the three cycles and be able to give a relevant example from a named sport.

🧠 Chapter 2B Quick Quiz

🧠 Chapter 2C: Psychological Preparation for Performance

Sport psychology, mental skills, anxiety, motivation and strategies – all explained simply

1. Sport & Exercise Psychology

Sport and Exercise Psychology The branch of psychology concerned with understanding the behaviour, mental processes and well-being of people who are involved in sport and exercise. Sports psychologists help athletes utilise psychology to improve their sports performance and mental well-being through various methods.

Psychological Preparedness In sport, this involves forming mental functions, processes and personality traits that help to solve problems during training sessions and competitions.

💡 Analogy Physical preparation is like training your body — psychological preparation is training your MIND. An athlete with a fit mind can outperform a physically superior opponent by staying calm and focused under pressure.

2. Confidence & Self-Efficacy

Confidence An athlete's belief in their own ability to carry out a specific task, in order to achieve an intended outcome. Confidence can be the main factor that separates a successful and an unsuccessful performance. It can fluctuate over time and vary depending on the situation.

Self-Efficacy A person's belief that they have the capacity and the skills to achieve their goals. While related to confidence, self-efficacy is more specific. It can often be at the heart of what is causing success or failure. (Bandura, 1997)

🔍 Confidence vs Self-Efficacy – The Key Difference Confidence is a broad, general feeling of belief. You can be confident AND expect to fail!
Self-Efficacy is specifically believing you CAN do something at a certain level. It's more precise and more predictive of performance.

💡 Analogy Confidence = "I'm a pretty good athlete." Self-Efficacy = "I KNOW I can kick this penalty from 40 metres." See how much more specific self-efficacy is?

Strategies to Improve Confidence

🎯 Visualisation

Athletes mentally rehearse successful performances to build a positive mindset and reinforce confidence before competition.

💬 Positive Self-Talk

Using affirmations and constructive language helps athletes overcome self-doubt and maintain focus, boosting belief in their abilities.

💪 Focus on Strengths

Regularly acknowledging strengths and past achievements shifts focus from weaknesses, building competence and self-assurance.

Bandura's Model of Self-Efficacy

Bandura identified four main sources that influence self-efficacy:

Source	Explanation
Mastery Experiences	Successfully performing a task in the past is the strongest source. "I've done it before, I can do it again."
Vicarious Experiences	Watching someone similar to you succeed — "If they can do it, so can I!"
Verbal Persuasion	Being encouraged by coaches, peers or family — "You can do this!"
Physiological States	How you interpret your body's reactions — e.g. interpreting a fast heartbeat as "I'm ready" rather than "I'm nervous."

3. Anxiety & Arousal

Anxiety A feeling of unease, such as worry or fear, that can be mild or severe. Some performers are 'pumped up' for competition while for others negative thoughts take over, interfering with performance. Negative thought patterns and expectations of failure can bring about a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy When an athlete believes they will fail, this belief itself causes them to perform poorly — the prediction comes true because of the belief. E.g. "I always miss penalties" → misses the penalty.

Types of Anxiety

State Anxiety

The experience of uneasy feelings when confronted with specific situations. A temporary condition — it goes away when the athlete judges the threat is no longer real. Like a short-term mood. E.g. noise of a crowd before a big game.

Trait Anxiety

Refers to how different people interpret how threatening a situation is. More long-term and linked to your personality. The threat doesn't go away — it's part of who you are.

🧠 Memory Trick State = Situation-specific (it comes and goes — like a STATE of mind)
Trait = Part of your personality TRAITS (always there)

Somatic Anxiety The physical expression of stress/anxiety. Includes: sweating, butterflies in the stomach, shaking, increased heart rate.

Cognitive Anxiety Anxiety experienced in the mind. Includes: worry, nerves, negative thoughts. Considered the most important in determining an athlete's performance as it deals with how they react to high-stress situations.

🧠 Memory Trick Somatic = Stomach (physical body reactions — you literally feel it in your gut!)
Cognitive = Cranium/Brain (it's all in your head!)

Arousal A state of 'activation' that varies in any individual, on a continuum between deep sleep and intense excitement. Increased arousal can occur from positive or negative events. Arousal as a result of a negative emotional reaction results in anxiety.

SCAT – Sports Competition Anxiety Test Developed in 1990 to measure the level of anxiety in sports competitors. Performers respond to a series of statements about how they feel in competitive situations. Answers are analysed using a points system to determine/quantify their level of anxiety.

Theories of Arousal and Performance

📈 Inverted U Theory ▶

Inverted U Theory This theory states that there is an optimal level of arousal which will differ from sport to sport and athlete to athlete. If arousal is too low, performance drops (athlete is bored). If arousal is at an optimal (medium) level, peak performance occurs. If arousal is too high, the athlete may become panicked (erratic decisions), leading to a drop in performance.

💡 Analogy Imagine a car engine — too little revs and you stall (under-aroused), rev it just right and you drive perfectly, but over-rev the engine and it blows up! Performance follows the shape of an upside-down U (hence "Inverted U").

💥 Catastrophe Theory ▶

Catastrophe Theory Increased cognitive anxiety while somatic anxiety remains low will HELP performance. However, when BOTH cognitive and somatic anxiety increase together, performance reduces. Continued high cognitive anxiety where somatic anxiety continues to increase will lead to a catastrophic response — known as choking.

Choking An extreme decline in performance where an athlete "goes to pieces" in a big event. Occurs when concentration shifts (likely due to significant changes in anxiety levels). The athlete either fails to pay attention to something important OR pays too much attention to factors they wouldn't normally focus on — both impact performance negatively.

4. Motivation

Motivation The ability to initiate and persist at a task. It is key to effort and accomplishment in sport. Without it, many of the other mental factors are irrelevant.

Intrinsic Motivation The desire to participate in an activity purely for the fun and enjoyment of it, or the motivation to develop skills due to their value to an activity. Comes from within. The most important and desired form of motivation an athlete can have. Without it, achievement is impossible.

Extrinsic Motivation External motivation that can be tangible or intangible. Should not become more important than inner motivation — otherwise there is a risk of the athlete losing the feeling of being in control of their behaviour.

Tangible Extrinsic Motivation

Has a physical form. Examples: financial gain, trophies, medals. Should NOT be the main source of motivation.

Intangible Extrinsic Motivation

Something you can't hold or touch. Examples: praise, recognition and gratification from parents, coach or peers. Strong source, particularly for beginners.

🧠 Memory Trick Intrinsic = Internal — it's inside you (pure love of the game!)
Extrinsic = External — it comes from outside (trophies, praise)
Tangible = Touch — you can hold it (medal = tangible) | Intangible = Invisible (praise you can't hold)

Amotivation Occurs when a performer lacks motivation entirely. The performer often feels incompetent or not good enough. This can affect mood and behaviour. Amotivated performers are highly likely to quit their activity.

Strategies to Enhance Motivation (as a Coach)

Create a positive training environment
Effectively communicate — two-way system where athlete input is valued
Focus on enjoyment levels
Be positive: coaches' reactions to performance set the tone
Goal setting: has a strong impact on motivation

5. Concentration

Concentration The skill of being able to focus the mind exclusively on the task at hand, processing elements that are of use while ignoring others that are not relevant. Example: a free throw in basketball — the athlete focuses on the ball and distance to the basket while ignoring the crowd, opposition and the scoreboard.

Strategies to Enhance Concentration

Focus Attention

Pay attention to only the key factors at any given moment. Identify what's relevant and practice focusing exclusively on those things.

Mindfulness Training

Practicing mindfulness helps athletes stay present and focused, reducing distractions and enhancing concentration.

Pre-Performance Routines

Consistent routines before events prime the mind for focus, creating a mental trigger that signals it's time to concentrate.

Simulation Training

Training sessions that simulate real competitive environments allow athletes to practice maintaining concentration under pressure.

6. Feedback

Intrinsic Feedback Occurs when an athlete uses their kinaesthetic awareness to evaluate their level of skill execution. Athletes may use a combination of senses (vision, hearing, proprioception/touch) to 'feel' what caused a skill to be performed correctly or incorrectly.

Extrinsic Feedback Feedback given to an athlete from an outside source (coach, teacher, other athletes) following a performance or skill execution. Split into two categories: Knowledge of Results and Knowledge of Performance.

Type	Definition	Focus
Knowledge of Results (KR)	Feedback based on the outcome of the performance. Successful = replicate technique; unsuccessful = breakdown movement to identify inaccuracies.	The end RESULT (did it work?)
Knowledge of Performance (KP)	Feedback based on the quality of the technique of the skill. Focuses on skill execution and movement patterns. Very beneficial for those in the associative stage of skill acquisition.	The TECHNIQUE (how it was done)

🧠 Memory Trick KR = Results — did the ball go in? Did you win?
KP = Performance — was your technique right? How did it look?

Kinaesthetic Awareness The ability to sense the position and movement of your own body parts during activity, without needing to look. Also known as proprioception. This is what allows an athlete to "feel" if a movement was correct.

7. Strategies to Improve Mental Preparation

🧩 Becoming Aware of Thinking ▶

Becoming Aware of Thinking Understanding your own thought patterns. Being aware of thoughts that increase perception of 'threats' (e.g. crowd noise). This awareness helps athletes cope with stress and improve performance levels.

🎭 Pre-Performance Routines ▶

Pre-Performance Routines The thoughts or actions an athlete takes prior to an event or closed skill. They develop a mental skill set for execution, focus on task-relevant information improving concentration, help the athlete be present, and increase perceptions of control — thereby reducing anxiety.

💡 Analogy Think of Jonny Wilkinson's pre-kick routine in rugby — feet together, hands in prayer position, visualise the kick. The routine is a "mental switch" that puts the brain into performance mode.

🏟️ Simulation Training ▶

Simulation Training Practising pressure in training by generating noise and distractions, simulating match conditions, simulating weather and pitch conditions, and practising precision skills when tired (e.g. free-taking).

🔍 Problem Solving ▶

Problem Solving Thinking through 'what ifs' and talking through various situations that could arise with the coach. Helps with concentration and confidence by preparing athletes mentally for unexpected scenarios.

🌟 Visualisation / Imagery ▶

Visualisation / Imagery Imagining the performance. Visualising success — picturing the ball hitting the back of the net, or mentally rehearsing executing the skill (e.g. a gymnast mentally rehearsing a somersault). Builds confidence and prepares the brain for execution.

💡 Analogy Your brain can't fully tell the difference between vividly imagining something and actually doing it. Athletes who visualise are essentially giving their nervous system a practice run for free!

Perspective Finding a balance between sport and life. Helps manage anxiety and perceived threats. Remembering that sport is not the most important thing in the world can reduce pressure and improve performance.

8. Goal Setting & SMART Goals

Goal setting is one of the most effective tools to help athletes prepare for performance. Sometimes goals can be too vague or unachievable, causing demotivation. Setting SMART goals makes them more realistic and achievable.

Letter	Meaning	Example
S	Specific — clear and well-defined	"Improve my 100m sprint time" not "get faster"
M	Measurable — you can track progress	"By 0.5 seconds"
A	Achievable — realistic and possible	Based on current ability and training time available
R	Relevant — matters to the athlete's sport	Relevant to upcoming competition
T	Time-bound — has a deadline	"By the end of the preseason (8 weeks)"

Three Types of Goals

Outcome Goals

Specific results in competition.
Example: Win the Olympics, win the county final.

Performance Goals

Improvements over a period of time (comparing against yourself).
Example: Run a faster 100m than last month.

Process Goals

Deal with technique and skill levels to help achieve performance goals.
Example: Stay lower in the first 20m of a sprint.

💡 Analogy Think of it like a staircase: Process goals are each step (technique improvements), Performance goals are the landing (measurable improvements), and Outcome goals are the top floor (winning the competition). You need to climb the steps to reach the top!

A very common exam question: Set a SMART goal for a named athlete. Make sure to include ALL five elements (S, M, A, R, T) and link them specifically to the sport mentioned.

🧠 Chapter 2C Quick Quiz

🥗 Chapter 2D: Diet & Nutrition

Macros, micros, hydration, energy systems and sports supplements – your complete guide

1. Macronutrients (Macros)

Nutrients Substances that an organism needs to stay alive and healthy.

Macronutrients Fat, protein and carbohydrate. These are the nutrients we need in LARGER quantities that provide us with energy. Most food contains all three macronutrients — the difference is in how they are balanced.

💡 Analogy Your body is like a car. Macronutrients are the fuel — carbs are the petrol (quick energy), fats are the diesel reserve (slow burn, long distance), and protein is the engine parts (building and repairing the car itself).

2. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates The sugars, starches and fibres found in fruits, grains, vegetables and dairy products. They are the main source of energy for the body. Carbs contain glycogen, which can be broken down into smaller glucose molecules. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles (max 500g) and distributed around the body as glucose via the bloodstream.

Glycogen The stored form of carbohydrate in the liver and muscles. It can be broken down into glucose and used as energy during exercise. The liver and muscles can store a maximum of approximately 500g of glycogen.

Glucose The simple sugar that glycogen is broken down into. It is distributed via the bloodstream to cells where it is used to produce energy (ATP).

Complex vs Simple Carbs

Type	Structure	Energy Release	Examples	Notes
Complex Carbs	Long chains of sugar	Slow, gradual release	Whole grains, beans, legumes, starchy vegetables	Contain fibre, vitamins and minerals. Better for sustained energy.
Simple Carbs	Short chains of sugar	Quick energy release	Chocolate, fruit juice, white bread	Higher in calories, full of refined sugars, low in fibre.

🧠 Memory Trick Complex = Complex structure = takes longer to break down = slow energy
Simple = Simple structure = breaks down fast = quick energy burst
Think: simple carbs are like cheap fireworks — big flash but gone quickly. Complex carbs are like a log fire — steady, long-lasting heat.

Glycaemic Index (GI) A ranking system of foods that contain carbohydrates, showing how quickly each food affects blood glucose (sugar) levels when that food is eaten on its own. High GI foods raise blood sugar quickly (simple carbs); low GI foods raise it slowly (complex carbs).

3. Protein

Protein A nutrient that helps build and repair muscle and other body tissues. Also plays a key role in hormone production and immune function.

Amino Acids The building blocks of proteins. The body cannot produce essential amino acids and they must come from the diet.

Functions of Protein

Growth and repair of tissues and cells
Making enzymes, antibodies and hormones (e.g. testosterone)
Making haemoglobin (transports oxygen in the blood)
Producing keratin and collagen for healthy skin, hair and nails

Good Sources of Protein

💡 Analogy Protein is like the bricks and cement of your body. After hard training (like a demolition site), you need protein (new bricks) to rebuild the muscles bigger and stronger!

ℹ️ Important Note All evidence suggests that adequate protein requirements can be met by following a healthy whole foods diet, which will also contain other essential nutrients — supplements are not necessary for most athletes.

4. Fats & Fibre

Fats (Lipids) Macronutrients that provide energy and help with the absorption of vitamins — essential for the body. Fats contain the most calories per 100g of all food groups. Stored throughout the body, helping to protect organs and insulate the body. Also acts as a store for some vitamins and minerals and helps produce important hormones.

Type	Description	Sources
Unsaturated Fats (Good)	Healthier fats that support body functions. Athletes should aim to get most dietary fat from these.	Eggs, nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, avocado, oily fish
Saturated Fats (Bad)	Less healthy fats. Excess consumption increases risk of cardiovascular disease. Should be limited.	Fatty meat, milk, biscuits, cakes, butter, dairy products

⚠️ Important! Excess glycogen or fat consumption can lead to increased fat stores, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease. Even excess consumption of good fats has negative effects.

Fibre A type of carbohydrate that cannot be broken down in the small intestine and so reaches the large intestine (colon). Essential for healthy bowel function. It: helps the body absorb vitamins and remove waste, creates a feeling of fullness. Sources: fresh fruit and vegetables, wheat, bran and wholemeal foods.

5. Micronutrients (Micros)

Micronutrients Vitamins and minerals which are vital to healthy development, disease prevention and wellbeing. Consumed in very small amounts. Examples: iron, vitamins A–K, zinc, folate, iodine. With the exception of vitamin D, micronutrients are not produced in the body and must come from the diet.

🧠 Memory Trick Macro = Major quantities (big amounts needed — protein, carbs, fats)
Micro = Minor quantities (tiny amounts needed — vitamins, minerals)
Think: a macro is a BIG camera lens; a micro is a microscope (tiny!)

Vitamins

Vitamins Regulate body functions and blood production. Broken into two subgroups based on how they are stored in the body.

Type	Definition	Examples
Water-Soluble Vitamins	Cannot be stored in the body and must be replenished every day.	Vitamin C, B vitamins (including biotin and folic acid). B vitamins essential for healthy metabolism.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins	Stored in fatty tissue in the body. The body can use these as needed.	Vitamins A, D, E, K and beta carotene.

⚠️ Note Processing foods gives them a longer shelf life but can strip foods of their vitamins and minerals. Processed foods provide plenty of calories without the micronutrient content.

6. Timing Nutrition (Before, During & After)

🍝 Before Exercise ▶

🎯 Goal: Fuel muscle and liver glycogen, maintain hydration, prevent hunger

2–3 hours before: Pre-exercise meal — pasta with chicken, rice and chicken with spinach, porridge with low-fat milk and fruit
30–60 mins before: Pre-event snack — banana, small smoothie
Stay hydrated throughout

🏃 During Exercise ▶

🎯 For events over 60 minutes

Events under 60 minutes: water is usually sufficient
Events over 60 minutes: water/carbs needed as glycogen stores can be depleted
Consuming carbs (isotonic drinks, bananas) during exercise CAN enhance performance for endurance/high-intensity sports over 60 minutes
Muscle glycogen can be completely depleted after 90–120 minutes of intense exercise (e.g. marathon running)
Sip small amounts of fluids — dehydration may have already occurred if you're thirsty

🍌 After Exercise ▶

🎯 Goal: Restore glycogen, repair muscles, rehydrate

Glycogen stores will be lower and need to be replaced, especially before upcoming sessions
Post-exercise meal: starchy whole grain foods + lean protein, consumed ASAP to restore glycogen and repair muscles
30–60 min after (if no meal available): banana, chocolate milk
Include fruit and veg for micronutrients
Plenty of fluids to restore hydration levels after sweating

7. Carbohydrate Loading

Carbohydrate Loading A nutrition strategy that attempts to elevate the body's glycogen stores in the final few days prior to competing in an endurance event (2+ hours in duration).

Time	Strategy
2–3 days before competition	Boost intensity and frequency of training; increased consumption of complex, whole food carbohydrate (8–12g per kg of body weight)
1–2 days before competition	Training is tapered off; fat and protein consumption is replaced by additional carbohydrate consumption
Competition day	Access to quick-absorbing, moderately complex carbs in fluid or gel form. 30g/hr for 1 hr → 60g/hr for 2 hrs → 90g/hr for 3 hrs

💡 Analogy Carb loading is like filling your car's petrol tank to the brim the night before a long road trip — you want maximum fuel available from the start so you don't have to stop as often!

Carb loading is ONLY for endurance events of 2+ hours. Don't say a sprinter should carb load — that would be wrong!

8. Hydration

Good Hydration (Euhydration) Getting the right amount of water before, during and after exercise. One of the most important aspects of balanced nutrition. Drinking enough liquids to maintain fluid levels helps ensure all bodily functions can take place as normal.

Dehydration Occurs when fluid loss is not replaced by fluid intake. Equals water loss in excess of 2–3% of body mass. Can cause headaches, fatigue and constipation. Even low levels of dehydration impair performance. The human body is roughly 75% water.

Effects of Dehydration on Performance

⚠️ Dehydration Causes...

Tiredness / fatigue
Reduced muscular strength
Reduced aerobic capacity
Reduced cognitive functioning / concentration (brain is largely water)
Increased heart rate (blood thickens, heart works harder)
Increased body temperature
Makes it harder for fat to get into muscles to be used as fuel, so muscles burn limited glycogen faster

💡 Analogy Dehydration is like trying to run a car engine with low coolant — it overheats, slows down, and eventually breaks. Your body does the same!

Hydration Guidelines

Duration	Recommended Fluid
Up to 1 hour	Water is sufficient (400–800ml per hour depending on conditions)
Over 1 hour	Isotonic sports drinks are useful to replace electrolytes and provide carbohydrates

Diuretic A substance that causes the body to get rid of water (increases urine production). Tea and coffee contain caffeine, which is a diuretic — athletes should drink these sparingly.

Types of Sports Drinks

💧 Hypotonic

Lower concentration of dissolved particles than blood. Absorbed quickly. Best for rapid rehydration when carbohydrate is not needed. E.g. after short, intense exercise.

⚡ Isotonic

Similar concentration to blood. Absorbed at a moderate rate. Replaces fluids AND provides carbohydrates. Most popular sports drink. E.g. Lucozade Sport.

🍫 Hypertonic

Higher concentration than blood. Slower absorption. Used to supplement carbohydrate intake for long endurance events. Can cause stomach issues if used during exercise.

🧠 Memory Trick Hypo = Below (below blood concentration — thinner/weaker = fastest absorption)
Iso = Same/Equal (same as blood — balanced)
Hyper = Above (above blood concentration — thicker/stronger = slowest absorption)
Think: "Hyper kids are too intense!" = Hypertonic is the most concentrated!

Electrolytes Minerals (such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) lost through sweat that help regulate fluid balance, nerve function and muscle contractions. Need to be replaced during/after prolonged exercise.

🥛 Milk as a Recovery Drink Skimmed milk is an excellent recovery drink — it contains natural vitamins and minerals (sodium, calcium, potassium), is high in carbohydrates (restores glycogen) and high in protein (repairs muscles).

⚠️ Energy Drinks – NOT Sports Drinks! Energy drinks (e.g. Red Bull) are NOT the same as sports drinks. They are: high in caffeine, high in sugars, high in calories, not designed to replace electrolytes, and if consumed in excess can lead to health problems.

9. Sports Supplements

Dietary Supplement A product that is added to the diet to make up for a deficiency in the diet.

⚠️ Regulation Warning Sports supplements are NOT regulated like medicines. There is a possibility of contamination with banned substances. Benefits are often exaggerated. The sale of nutritional substances is largely unregulated. Sport Ireland and WADA do NOT endorse any supplements.

WADA – World Anti-Doping Agency Develops the list of prohibited substances in sport. The list is not definitive. The ultimate responsibility lies with THE ATHLETE — it is the athlete's responsibility to ensure nothing they take contains a banned substance.

Common Sports Supplements

Supplement	Role / Benefit	Side Effects / Notes	Best For
Creatine	Helps resynthesise ATP in the ATP-PC system, increasing power and strength output. Can increase short-burst performance.	Possible water retention, stomach upset. Some risk of contamination. Not recommended for teenagers.	Strength/power sports: weightlifting, sprinting, rugby
Whey Protein	Provides amino acids to support muscle growth and repair after exercise. Convenient source of protein.	Unnecessary if diet is adequate. Digestive discomfort if overused. Not a substitute for whole food protein.	Strength and muscle-building athletes. Post-exercise recovery.
Caffeine	Stimulant that improves alertness, reduces perceived effort and can improve endurance performance. Found naturally in tea, coffee.	Is a diuretic — increases fluid loss. Disrupts sleep. Can cause anxiety. In high doses: banned by some sport organisations.	Endurance sports. Must be used carefully.
Carbohydrate Gels / Sports Bars	Provide quick-release carbohydrates to maintain glycogen levels during prolonged exercise.	Can cause stomach cramps if overused or not consumed with enough water.	Endurance athletes (marathon, triathlon, cycling)
Glutamine	An amino acid that supports immune function and recovery after intense exercise.	Evidence for benefit is limited; body can produce adequate amounts in most cases.	Athletes undergoing very heavy training loads
BCAAs (Branched Chain Amino Acids)	Essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, valine) that support muscle protein synthesis and reduce muscle breakdown.	Benefits are minimal if overall protein intake is adequate. No specific need if eating a balanced diet.	Strength and endurance athletes
Iron	A micronutrient supplement — important for haemoglobin production and oxygen transport. Used when iron deficiency (anaemia) is present.	Excess iron can be toxic. Should only be taken on medical advice.	Athletes (especially female) diagnosed with iron deficiency

✅ What Experts Say A balanced whole foods diet is still recommended over supplements. Sport Ireland does NOT generally recommend sports supplements, particularly for teenage athletes.

10. Energy Systems

Energy The ability to do work — this includes all human movement and activity.

Energy Systems The specific processes by which energy is produced and used by the body. There are three main energy systems. The body does not use each one exclusively but uses them together depending on the intensity and duration of physical activity. At various times, one energy system will become dominant. All three systems produce a chemical called ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate The main energy supplier for cells. ATP carries energy to the required destination in the body. When energy is needed by a cell, glycogen is converted into ATP, which then delivers energy to the cells where activity is taking place. Fats and carbohydrates store chemical energy; ATP does not store it — it carries it.

💡 Analogy Glycogen is like money in a bank — ATP is the cash in your wallet. Your body "withdraws" glycogen and converts it into ATP (cash) to spend on movement. The three energy systems are three different ways to access your bank!

🧠 Memory Trick Aerobic = Air (uses oxygen — needs breathing) — long duration, lower intensity
Anaerobic = Absent of Air (without oxygen) — short duration, high intensity
Think: "AnaerOBIC = OBLITERATE oxygen — it doesn't need it!"

The Three Energy Systems

⚡ 1. ATP-PC System (0–10 seconds) – The SPRINT System ▶

ATP-PC System (ATP-Phosphocreatine System) The immediate source of ATP for muscle action. Provides energy at maximum intensity but for a short duration (8–10 seconds). All cells have enough ATP stored for 2–3 seconds of work. After this, phosphocreatine (PC) provides the energy to resynthesise (rebuild) ATP for approximately 8–10 seconds of physical work. Requires 2–3 minutes of recovery time to replenish stores.

✅ Advantages

Energy released very quickly with no waste products produced.

❌ Disadvantages

Very limited stores — only lasts 8–10 seconds. Requires 2–3 minutes recovery.

💡 Analogy Like a phone fully charged to 100% — it powers everything instantly, but only for a short burst before needing a recharge. Sports: 100m sprint, Olympic weightlifting, a throwing event.

🔥 2. Anaerobic Glycolytic System (10 sec – 90 seconds) – The LACTIC System ▶

Anaerobic Glycolytic System Uses glycogen and glucose to produce ATP WITHOUT requiring oxygen. Muscles store glycogen which can be used to make ATP. Energy is supplied more slowly than the ATP-PC system. When muscles use glycogen to make ATP without oxygen, lactic acid is produced — this causes muscles to fatigue (the burning feeling). Suited to short, high-intensity activity.

📝 Equation Glucose → Energy + Lactic Acid

Lactic Acid A byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis (producing energy without oxygen). Builds up in muscles during intense exercise and causes fatigue — the burning sensation felt in muscles. It is removed during recovery (one reason ice baths help).

💡 Analogy It's like running a diesel car on petrol — it works for a bit, but produces dirty exhaust (lactic acid) that eventually chokes the engine (muscle fatigue). Sports: 400m sprint, 200m swimming, 800m run.

🌬️ 3. Aerobic System (90 seconds+) – The OXYGEN System ▶

Aerobic System Uses oxygen to produce ATP. Stored fats and carbohydrates are the fuel source. Within 2 minutes of starting exercise, the body begins to supply active muscles with oxygen. Oxygen allows aerobic respiration to break down glucose for ATP. Slowest of all three systems but can supply ATP for several hours as long as fuel supply is maintained. The heart, lungs and circulatory system provide the oxygen needed.

📝 Equation Glucose + Oxygen → Energy + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Glucose sources for the aerobic system:

Remaining glucose in muscle cells
Glucose from food in the intestine
Glycogen in the liver
Fat reserves in the muscles
In extreme cases (starvation): body protein

💡 Analogy The aerobic system is like a hybrid car — slow to warm up but incredibly efficient and can run for hours. Sports: marathon running, cycling, triathlon, any long-duration activity.

The Energy Continuum

Energy Continuum The relative contribution of all three energy systems to producing energy (ATP). The energy systems work alongside each other. Understanding the energy continuum is important for planning training programmes and diet/nutrition to ensure the performer is optimally prepared.

Energy System	Duration	Intensity	O₂?	Fuel	Example Sports
ATP-PC	0–10 seconds	Maximum	No	Phosphocreatine (PC)	100m sprint, weightlifting, throwing
Anaerobic Glycolytic	10–90 seconds	High	No	Glucose / Glycogen	400m sprint, 200m swim, 800m run
Aerobic	90 seconds +	Moderate–Low	Yes	Glucose + Fats	Marathon, triathlon, cycling, GAA match

A very common exam question asks you to match energy systems to sports and explain why. Remember the three key things: duration, intensity and whether oxygen is used.

Energy Systems and Training

Your body's energy systems do not work independently. If you complete short, intense exercise or light, long exercise, all 3 energy systems can contribute, but one or two will be most dominant.

🏋️ Training Application

Strength/Power training (ATP-PC): Very short, maximum effort reps with full recovery. E.g. 3 × 5 reps at 90% 1RM with 3 mins rest.
Speed endurance (Anaerobic Glycolytic): 400m–800m intervals with moderate rest.
Endurance training (Aerobic): Continuous training, 20+ minutes at moderate intensity.